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Carole Maczkovics

Carole Maczkovics is a market leader in State aid law, with a robust background in the economic regulation of network industries (energy and transport) and in public contracting (EU subsidies, public procurement, concessions).

Carole has a proven track record of advising public and private entities in administrative and judicial proceedings on complex State aid and regulatory matters before the European Commission as well as before the Belgian and European courts. She also advises clients on the application of the EU Foreign Subsidy Regulation (FSR) and UK subsidy control regime.

Carole has published many articles on State aid law and on the FSR, and contributes to conferences and seminars on a regular basis. She is a visiting lecturer at King’s College London on the FSR and at the Brussels School of Competition on the application of regulation and competition law (including State aid) in the railway sector. Carole gives trainings on State aid law at EFE, in Paris. She also acts as Academic Director of the European State aid Law Institute (EStALI).

Contact:Read more about Carole MaczkovicsEmail

On 1 December 2024 the 2025-2029 College of Commissioners took office, led by President Ursula von der Leyen in her second term. This blog explores what companies can expect from the new Commission regarding the EU Foreign Subsidies Regulation (“FSR”).

The FSR was adopted in December 2022 to address distortions caused in the EU by foreign subsidies. It introduced two notification tools for prior clearance of concentrations and public procurement procedures – effective since 12 October 2023 – and an ex officio tool for investigations by the Commission into suspicious foreign subsidies – effective since 12 July 2023. For a detailed overview of the FSR, see our previous blog post.

Key takeaways

  • The first year of FSR enforcement has seen a higher number of FSR notifications than the Commission anticipated in its 2021 Impact Assessment, in terms of both transactions and public procurement procedures. The Commission has initiated four in-depth investigations. By contrast, the ex officio tool has rarely been used with only two investigations launched.
  • For its 2025-2029 mandate, the Commission is aiming to vigorously enforce the FSR, especially as regards concentrations.
  • The Commission appears willing to discuss possible amendments to the FSR (in particular, to the public procurement notification thresholds).

The first year of FSR enforcement

The first year of FSR enforcement has seen a higher number of FSR notifications than the Commission anticipated in its 2021 Impact Assessment. Based on data disclosed by officials at conferences: (i) DG COMP, responsible for the enforcement of the FSR in relation to concentrations, received more than 100 transaction notifications (with 98 cases closed), compared to the 30 initially anticipated; and (ii) DG GROW, responsible for the enforcement of the public procurement tool, received approximately 140 notifications, compared to the 36 initially anticipated.Continue Reading The EU Foreign Subsidies Regulation – Outlook for the European Commission’s 2025-2029 Mandate

On 18 November 2024, the International Energy Agency (“IEA”) published a detailed 163-page Report titled “Recycling of Critical Minerals: Strategies to Scale Up Recycling and Urban Mining” (the “Report”). The Report emphasizes the importance of recycling in securing the supply of essential minerals – such as copper, lithium…

Continue Reading Regulatory Insights from the IEA’s New Report on Recycling Critical Raw Materials

On 29 June 2024, the Net-Zero Industry Act (“NZIA”) entered into force.  The primary aim of the NZIA is to ensure that the EU has access to secure and sustainable net-zero technologies by scaling up their manufacturing capacity within the EU.

Here are the key takeaways:

  • The NZIA focuses on 19 Net-Zero Technologies (“NZTs”), including renewable fuels of non-biological origin (“RFNBOs”), solar, wind, nuclear, batteries, and carbon capture and carbon storage technologies.  The Regulation sets non-binding benchmarks for 40% local production of such technologies by 2030 and 15% global market share by 2040.  
  • To reach those benchmarks, Net-Zero Technologies Manufacturing Projects (“NZT Manufacturing Projects”) will benefit from streamlined permitting procedures.  Further, NZT Manufacturing Projects that are deemed “strategic” will benefit from expedited permitting timelines.
  • The NZIA introduces a target of achieving an annual injection capacity of at least 50 million tons of CO2 by 2030.  Oil and gas producers identified by Member States must contribute to this target, according to a proportion to be defined by the Commission for each individual producer.  Member States must adopt penalties for non-compliance.
  • National public procurement procedures for NZT Manufacturing Projects must include requirements for achieving a minimum level of environmental sustainability, to be set out in future implementing regulations.  In addition, for any given NZT Manufacturing Project, the contracting authorities and entities must consider the project’s so-called “resilience contribution”, which relates to supply chain diversification.  When the majority (or a near majority) of a specific net-zero technology (or any of its main components) originates from a third country, the contracting authority or entity must impose specific public procurement conditions to reduce dependency on that country.
  • Auctions to deploy renewable energy sources and schemes that incentivize households, companies, and consumers to purchase NZT final products must also be designed to favor bidders that contribute to increasing the sustainability and resilience of the supply of NZTs within the EU.
  • Member States may establish regulatory sandboxes, i.e., schemes enabling companies to test technologies in a controlled real-world environment under monitoring by a competent authority.

Continue Reading The EU Net-Zero Industry Act enters into force

On 18 July 2024, the current President of the European Commission (“Commission”), Ursula von der Leyen, was reconfirmed by the European Parliament for a second 5-year term. As part of her reconfirmation, President von der Leyen delivered a speech before the European Parliament, complemented by a 30-page program, which lays down the Commission’s political program for the next five years.

A key pillar of the program – “A new plan for Europe’s sustainable prosperity and competitiveness” – has the objective of combining competitiveness and prosperity with the achievement of the European Green Deal goals.

Specifically on competition policy, according to President von der Leyen, a new approach is needed to achieve this objective. This blog post projects where competition policy is likely headed in the 2024-2029 period by commenting on the most relevant paragraphs of the program.

Von der Leyen: “I believe we need a new approach to competition policy, better geared to our common goals and more supportive of companies scaling up in global markets – while always ensuring a level playing field. This should be reflected in the way we assess mergers so that innovation and resilience are fully taken into account. We will ensure competition policy keeps pace with evolving global markets and prevents market concentration from raising prices or lowering the quality of goods or services for consumers. We will look at all of our policies through a security lens.”

  • This statement reaffirms the classic principles underlying competition law, i.e., the focus on ensuring a level playing field, preventing market concentration, and ultimately avoiding a negative impact on prices/quality of goods or services.
  • However, the President’s comments recognize the impact of global dynamics and the need for EU companies to be able to respond to global pressures. In the context of Siemens/Alstom and Lufthansa/ITA, there is growing pressure from EU Member States to allow European champions and this program could signal an openness to that effect.
  • The President also calls for an increased focus on innovation and resilience in the substantive assessment of mergers. This could mean (i) that the Commission will expand its assessment of the impact of ESG (Environmental, Social, and Governance) standards and security, (ii) that the Commission would be open to a greater role of wider efficiency justifications/public interest considerations in merger control and competition law assessments, and/or (iii) that the impact on the overall economic competitiveness of the EU, and the aim of geopolitical de-risking for critical supply chains and technologies, may play an increasingly important role in the assessment of mergers.

Continue Reading The 2024-2029 Commission Political Guidelines: Where Is Competition Policy Likely Headed?

On 31 May 2024, the European Commission (“Commission”) adopted an amendment to its Regional aid Guidelines (“RAG”), allowing EU Member States to grant higher amounts of aid to investment projects falling into the Strategic Technologies for Europe Platform’s (“STEP”) objectives in disadvantaged areas of the EU. STEP is an EU initiative designed to boost the EU’s industrial competitiveness and reinforce EU sovereignty by supporting critical and emerging strategic technologies and their respective value chains.

Key takeaways

  • In the EU, large businesses can only receive State aid from Member States for their large investment projects (“LIPs”) in production facilities if their projects take place in disadvantaged areas of the EU. The conditions to access such State support and the maximum aid amount are laid down in the RAG.
  • STEP’s objectives are to support the development and the manufacturing of clean tech, digital technologies, and bio-tech.
  • The amendment to the RAG allows Member States to grant large businesses higher amounts of aid for their LIPs where they contribute to the STEP objectives.

Regional aid

Aid to large businesses pursuing LIPs is generally considered unnecessary and highly distortive because these businesses already have access to capital and are a significant presence on the market. Such aid can, in principle, only be authorised by the Commission under strict conditions and if it supports an initial investment in new production facilities, output diversification into new products, or a fundamental change in a production process.Continue Reading The Commission amends regional aid rules to foster support for strategic technology projects

On 23 May 2024, the EU’s Critical Raw Materials Act (“CRMA”) entered into force.  The Regulation’s adoption within just one year after it was first proposed in March 2023 signals the EU’s political commitment to strengthen Europe’s strategic autonomy on the supply of Strategic Raw Materials (“SRMs”) and the broader category of “Critical Raw Materials” (“CRMs”).   

Here are the key takeaways for companies:

  • The CRMA sets non-binding capacity targets within the EU for the extraction, processing, refining, and recycling of SRMs that are key to achieve the green and digital transition.
  • To reach such targets, the CRMA empowers the European Commission (“the Commission”) to recognize projects that extract, process, refine or recycle SRMs, including projects outside the EU, as Strategic Projects (“SPs”) so that they may benefit from easier access to financing, expedited permitting process, and matchmaking with off-takers.  The Commission is expected to recognize the first SPs by the end of 2024.
  • The Commission must monitor disruption risks and propose mitigation measures, if needed, to ensure a secure supply of CRMs.  To enable the Commission to do this effectively, companies may be subject to new specific obligations, such as participating in surveys, carrying out risk assessments of SRMs supply chains, mitigating possible vulnerabilities, reporting on the implementation and the financing of their SPs, labelling some products, and recycling a minimum content of permanent magnets.  
  • The Commission will also create and operate a Joint Purchasing Mechanism to aggregate the demand of interested EU off-takers consuming SRMs and seek offers from suppliers to match that aggregated demand.

Critical and Strategic Raw Materials and Capacity Targets

SRMs are indispensable raw materials for strategic sectors that facilitate transition to a greener, digital economy.  They are characterized by high forecasted demand growth and significant challenges in scaling up production in Europe to meet such demand.  Annex I to the CRMA lists 17 SRMs, including copper, gallium, lithium, manganese, and titanium metal.Continue Reading The EU Critical Raw Materials Act enters into force

What You Need to Know.

  • With a focus on multilevel action, urbanization, and the built environment and transport, the events of Day 7 of COP28 highlighted efforts to transition to low-carbon and resilient infrastructure, particularly in urban areas.  This thematic focus is significant; according to the UN Environmental Programme, cities are responsible for an estimated 75 percent of global CO2 emissions, primarily from transportation and buildings.

Continue Reading COP28 Day 7 Recap: “A Bullet Train to Speed Up Climate Action”

On 10 July 2023, the European Commission (the “Commission”) adopted the Implementing Regulation (“IR”) for the European Union (“EU”) Foreign Subsidies Regulation (“FSR”). The FSR, which starts to apply today, 12 July 2023, creates a new instrument designed to prevent foreign subsidies from distorting the EU internal market (see our blog). The objective is to level the playing field within EU markets between companies subject to scrutiny under the EU State aid rules and companies receiving subsidies from non-EU Member States.

To attain this objective, the FSR empowers the Commission to assess foreign subsidies either on its own motion or after the notification of concentrations or public procurement tenders in the EU where certain thresholds are exceeded. Foreign subsidies are financial contributions (i.e. any value transfer) granted by non-EU countries, or entities whose action can be attributed to a non-EU country (i.e. foreign financial contributions or “FFC”) that confer a benefit that is not available on the market, specifically to one or to several companies or industries. Where foreign subsidies are problematic, this assessment may lead to remedies and even to the prohibition of the concentration or of the award of a public contract. Although the FSR starts to apply on 12 July 2023, allowing the Commission to investigate foreign subsidies on its own motion, the notification obligations only kick in on 12 October 2023. That means that notification may be requested for transactions signed after 12 July but not closed by 12 October and for public procurement procedures initiated after 12 July.

The purpose of the IR is to set out the rules applicable to proceedings conducted by the Commission under the FSR, including the submission of notifications.

Key things you need to know about the IR and the notification obligations:

  • The IR enacts the forms that notifying parties will have to complete and submit to the Commission in the context of concentrations and public procurement tenders.
  • The Commission must review foreign subsidies within statutory time limits that start to run as soon as the notification is complete and that may be suspended to obtain further information.
  • Detailed information must be submitted for FFCs that are considered to fall into the most distortive categories of foreign subsidies, whereas aggregate information must be provided for most other FFCs.
  • Information must be provided for FFCs provided to all group entities of the party or parties involved.
  • Companies that are likely to be involved in large concentrations or public procurements would be well advised to prepare sufficiently well in advance to avoid delays in their clearance timeline.

Continue Reading The EU Foreign Subsidies Regulation starts to apply – what you need to know about the notification obligations

As part of “A Green Deal Industrial Plan for the Net Zero Age” to respond to the US Inflation Reduction Act (IRA) (see our alert), the European Commission (the “Commission”) adopted on 9 March 2023 its Temporary Crisis and Transition Framework for State Aid measures to support the economy following the aggression against Ukraine by Russia (the “TCTF”). The text amends the Temporary Crisis Framework last amended on 28 October 2022 (see our blog). 

These are the three most important things you need to know about the TCTF:

  • To avoid that an investment would be located outside the European Economic Area (EEA), EU countries may support investments in the manufacturing of relevant equipment for the transition towards a net-zero economy, such as batteries, solar panels, wind turbines, heat pumps, carbon capture usage and storage (CCUS), as well as their key components and critical raw materials necessary for their production. They may even grant aid matching foreign subsidies to support those investments, provided that they are located in the poorer areas of the EU.
  • EU countries’ possibilities to grant aid for accelerating the rollout of renewable energy are extended to any renewable technologies, including hydropower, and no longer require a bidding process to select the aided projects that are considered as less mature.
  • The TCTF is not a subsidy program, and it is up to EU Member States to provide public funding.

Aid to cover investment costs for the production of relevant equipment for the transition towards a net-zero economyContinue Reading The Commission adopts its Temporary Crisis and Transition Framework relaxing State aid rules as a response to the US Inflation Reduction Act

European Union (“EU”) Foreign Subsidies Regulation (“FSR”), a new state aid instrument adopted at the end of 2022, will have a significant impact on transactions in the EU. The FSR impacts any company that is present in or wants the enter the EU, and has received financial support in any form from non-EU governments. 

The FSR is game-changing — it imposes notification obligations on companies on subsidies received from non-EU countries and, when those subsidies are considered to distort the internal market in the EU, the European Commission (“EC”) can impose remedies.

Companies will now have notification obligations if they have received foreign financial contributions above a certain amount and are:

(1)    acquiring a company that has a turnover of at least EUR 500 million in the EU, or

(2)    participating in a public tender with a value of EUR 250 million.

These notification obligations will start to apply on 12 October 2023.Continue Reading EU Foreign Subsidies Regulation – Key Takeaways